There are four perspectives on psychology students need to know for the IB standard and higher level exams. They are the...

behavioral perspective

cognitive perspective

humanistic/phenomenological perspective

psychodynamic perspective

REA's Problem Solvers references:

1-13, 1-16, 6-6, 7-1, 13-22, 14-11, 14-13, 14-29, 14-44, 14-45, 14-50, 15-8, 15-13 & 15-14

The emergence of behavioral psychology

originated with John B. Watson

believed the only data for experimentation was from outward behavior

major focus for psychology should be the identification of stimulus-response relationships

the building blocks of behavior are simple learned responses to stimuli

denied the existence of instinctual or inborn tendencies; all behavior is learned

neobehaviorism began in 1930-1940 with Tolman, Hull and Guthrie as the major theorists

neobehaviorists wanted to show that behaviorism is more accurate at predicting human behavior

than other theories

behaviorism has had one of the greatest influences on shaping modern psychology

behavior modification based on rewards and punishments can be used clinically

hypothetical constructs to explain unobservable behavior are unsound and non-objective;

the science of psychology cannot afford this type of analysis

The behaviorist model

Classical conditioning is attributed to Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who received the

Nobel Prize in 1904 for his studies on digestion.

Classical conditioning occurs when an organism learns to transfer a response from one stimulus to

another unlearned stimulus.

Basic elements of classical conditioning:

unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that invariably causes an organism to

respond

unconditioned response (UCR): a response or reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that, when paired to the

UCS, elicits a desired response in an organism when presented alone

conditioned response (CR): a response or reaction to a conditioned stimulus

 

 

In Pavlov's classic experiment, dogs in this study would naturally salivate (UCR) to the

presentation of food (UCS). By pairing the presentation of food with the sound of a bell (CS), the sounding of the bell alone would elicit salivation (CR) in the dogs.

Also notable is Watson and Rayner's experiments with Little Albert. Albert was conditioned to

fear the appearance of a white rat (CS) by pairing it with a loud noise (UCS). The response in both cases was to become fearful and cry.

Factors involved in classical conditioning:

interstimulus interval: the time between the presentation of the UCS and the CS; it this

is too long or too short an amount of time it can interfere with conditioning

intermittent pairing: an inconsistency in the presentation of the UCS and the CS; this

will reduce the rate and acquisition of the conditioned response

fading: a gradual reduction in the association between the UCS and the CS, typically

because they are no longer paired together

extinction: when the UCS and CS are no longer associated with one another

spontaneous recovery: the instant re-association after the passage of time of the UCS

and CS because of the pairing of the UCS with the CS

stimulus generalization: the response to a different but similar stimulus

stimulus discrimination: the response to only a specific stimulus and not to other

similar stimuli

response generalization: responding in a different way but that is similar to the original

response

Higher order conditioning involves using a CS as an UCS to further condition the organism. In Pavlov's experiment, he used the bell as an UCS to train his dogs to salivate to the sight of a black square (the new CS).

 

Edward Lee Thorndike determined the Law of Effect in which behaviors eliciting a pleasant

effect will be "stamped in" and behaviors eliciting an unpleasant effect will be "stamped out."

B.F. Skinner is attributed with operant or instrumental conditioning whereby behavior

increases when a reinforcer is presented and decreases when a punishment is carried out.

In Skinner's classic experiment, a rat presses a bar in a "Skinner box" which delivers a food pellet

(positive reinforcement), thereby reinforcing subsequent bar-pressing behavior.

Basic elements of operant conditioning:

positive reinforcer: any event whose presence increases the likelihood of a behavior

reoccurring

negative reinforcer: any event whose reduction or elimination increases the likelihood

of a behavior reoccurring

punishment: any event whose presence decreases the likelihood of a behavior

reoccurring

A primary reinforcer is one that is rewarding in and of itself; food and water are good examples

of primary reinforcers.

A secondary reinforcer only has value because it is associated with a primary reinforcer; money

is the most common example because it only has value because it can be traded for something the individual wants or needs.

Procedures involved in operant conditioning:

acquisition: an increase in the response rate of an organism following reinforcement

shaping: molding behavior through the use of reinforcement

chaining: linking shaped behaviors together as steps in a more complex behavior

forward chaining: starting with the first step toward a desired behavior, and

successively adding and reinforcing steps toward the ultimate goal

backward chaining: starting with the ultimate goal and reinforcing behavior as

you add steps working backwards to the first step

fading: a gradual reduction in behavior because of the absence of reinforcement or

punishment

extinction: a condition in which a reinforced behavior is no longer present because of the

absence of reinforcement or punishment

spontaneous recovery: the instant re-emergence of a behavior because of the re-

initiation of reinforcement or punishment

Studies of animal behavior and their relevance to human subjects

no differences exist between animal and human behavior

man can learn about his own behavior through animal study

Contingencies of reinforcement and applied behavioral analysis

Four principals which increase the effectiveness of a reinforcer:

The Principal of Size: the larger the reinforcement, the more likely behavior will occur

The Principal of Immediacy: the more immediate the reinforcement, the more likely

behavior will occur

The Principal of Contingency: a reinforcer becomes more effective when it is only

achieved by the desired behavior

The Principal of Satiation: a more an organism is deprived of a reinforcer, the more

effective it becomes

Schedules of reinforcement involve two main types.

Ratio schedules focus on a desired behavior being performed in order to receive

reinforcement. For example, someone trying to train their dog to roll over will typically reward the dog each time it completes the behavior.

Interval schedules are not concerned with the amount of desired behavior but

reinforce the organism after a certain time interval. Paychecks are the best example; it doesn't matter how busy or hard someone works between paychecks, as long as the hours are the same they will be rewarded with the same amount of reinforcement (i.e. same amount on their paycheck).

There are four main schedules of reinforcement:

fixed ratio: the correspondence of behavior to reinforcement is always the same

variable ratio: the correspondence of behavior to reinforcement varies

fixed interval: the time period between reinforcement is always the same

variable interval: the time period between reinforcement varies

When training a subject it is best to start with a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement. Because there

will typically be a 1:1 ratio (i.e. one behavior earns one reinforcement) the subject tends to catch on quickly. After the behavior has been instilled in the subject, it is best to move to a variable ratio or variable interval schedule of reinforcement. Periodic reinforcement of a behavior will keep the subject performing the desired behavior in an attempt to obtain reinforcement when it is given.

The extension of the behavioral perspective to education and other institutions

a subject can be trained for any job on the basis of learned responses

Behavior modification techniques within a clinical framework

Watson focused on stimulus-response relationships and ignored the mind

the mind was only a description of physical events; the focus was on the physical nature of man

neurotic symptoms are the result of persistent habits that have been acquired and that can be

extinguished through behavioral therapy

behaviorists apply a treatment; if that treatment does not work, they turn to another behavior

treatment

behaviorists discount the unconscious motives of a subject; maladaptive behavior is the result of

receiving certain rewards to that the behavior is acquired through time

many psychotherapists are combining an investigation into unconscious motives with behavioral

therapy to treat maladaptive behaviors because it is the overt behaviors that the subjects are having the most difficulty with

the behaviorist perspective on anxiety:

anxiety is an internal response that is learned through classical conditioning; a tone followed

by an electric shock can induce fear (both as an internal response and as a drive related to avoidance behavior)

lack of control is an important variable in a subject that can develop a sense of anxiety

behaviorism cannot adequately explain or treat anxious people because anxiety is not clearly

associated with any set of behaviors

some behaviorists reject the concept of anxiety and explain it as a behavioral manifestation

of an internal response

Skinner believes that internal responses should not be considered, only overt behaviors

the behaviorist perspective on phobias:

a phobia develops through classical conditioning when an object or situation that is not

frightening is paired with a frightening stimulus

all phobias are learned

Watson and Raynor conditioned little Albert to fear a rat (CS) because it was associated

with a loud noise (UCS)

classical conditioning creates two situations: 1) a CS can cause fear because it is associated

with an UCS, and 2) a subject learns to lessen fear by avoiding the CS

there are several criticisms of this perspective on phobias: 1) Watson and Raynor's

experiment on little Albert has not been universally replicated; 2) phobias develop in the absence of an UCS-CS association; and 3) application of animal avoidance behavior may not be applicable to humans since avoidance behavior in animals is adaptive (designed to actively avoid a frightening stimulus) whereas in humans the behavior is maladaptive (they cannot function normally because of their fear)

the behaviorist perspective on dissociative disorders:

dissociative disorders are an avoidance response to stressful stimuli

the behaviorist perspective on conversion disorders:

conversion disorders are an avoidance response to stressful stimuli

the subject behaves the way he thinks a person with motor or sensory disabilities would act

the subject must have some familiarity with the disability they are to adopt

the subject most be rewarded for this disability by escaping the stressful stimuli

the behaviorist perspective on psychosomatic disorders:

psychosomatic disorders are an avoidance response to stressful stimuli

previous reward for the psychosomatic symptom is important in the selection of the

symptom

Behavior therapy is an attempt to replace abnormal behavior with normal behavior.

There are four techniques in behavior therapy: counterconditioning, operant conditioning, modeling

and cognitive restructuring.

Counterconditioning attempts to eliminate an undesirable response by substituting a desirable

response to the stimulus (replacing anxiety associated with fear of the dark by pairing the dark with the subject's favorite food, thereby making the dark pleasurable). Counterconditioning techniques include systematic desensitization, aversion conditioning and assertiveness training.

Systematic desensitization is an attempt to slowly reduce a subject's anxiety regarding

a particular object or event. This is done on a continuum from least anxiety-producing to most anxiety-producing. The subject is lead along with continuum with the aid of a therapist, typically first imagining the stressful stimuli and inevitably confronting it.

Aversive conditioning involves the administration of punishment surrounding an

unwanted behavior in order to eliminate that behavior (associating an electric shock with smoking a cigarette).

Assertiveness training involves training subjects who cannot express positive or

negative feelings to do so in order to avoid the anxiety that is produced whenever the subject is in the presence of this stressful stimuli (training a timid man to express his displeasure to an associate who belittles him).

Operant conditioning applies positive and negative reinforcement as well as punishment to alter

behavior.

Modeling involves observing appropriate behavior to affect behavior change (a child who is

afraid of dogs may observe other children playing with dogs to try to adopt that behavior).

Cognitive restructuring attempts to get the client to change his thinking and reasoning

processes. Rational-emotive therapy is the best example of this. Cognitive restructuring does take into account the mental component of behavior, something some behaviorists feel would be somewhat non-empirical.

General societal issues

A lot of BF Skinner's views on society come from Walden Two in 1948. In this he describes a utopian society designed along behavioristic lines. This is an American society that is more active than contemplative. Members of this society are reinforced for socially appropriate behaviors. Punishment is avoided and, consequently, members of this society are free from guilt or external constraints.

In Beyond Freedom and Dignity in 1971, Skinner attacked the "autonomous man" or the idea that man is free to initiate his own actions and can be praised or blamed for these actions. He pointed out that man's choices are predictable given the controlling nature of society. He believes that behaviorism can be used to create societies that are predictable, productive and positive.