There are four perspectives on psychology students need to know for the IB standard and higher level exams. They are the...

behavioral perspective

cognitive perspective

humanistic/phenomenological perspective

psychodynamic perspective

REA's Problem Solvers references:

1-1, 4-18, 5-2, 5-4, 5-5, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-6, 6-8, 6-15, 6-16, 6-17, 6-18, 6-19, 6-20, 6-24, 6-25, 6-26, 6-29, 6-31, 6-32, 6-33, 6-34, 6-35, 6-36, 6-37, 6-38, 6-39, 9-25, 12, 30, 12-47, 12-48, 12-49, 12-53, 14-17 & 15-8

 

 

The rise of the cognitive approach in psychology

Cognitive theory deals on our mental processes such as thinking, learning, remembering, and feeling. The focus is on how people perceive, process, store and retrieve information. While behaviorists focus simply on what can be observed and reject the notion of scientifically measuring what goes on inside a subject's brain, cognitive theorists are most interested in the mental processes and feel that these processes can be studied empirically. While these processes cannot be seen, their effects can be observed and measured.

The mind-computer analogy

The description of models of perception and reasoning which can be simulated by computers

Computers and information processing have advanced the theory of cognitive development by focusing on how we receive information (or perception) and how we process it before acting on it (or cognition). It has reinforced the belief held by cognitive theorists that we think in terms of schemas or symbolic information. Computer science has discounted Descartes' theory in the 17th century that it was impossible to measure mental operations in humans because the mind and the body were separate entities. It has shown its affect in the areas of perception, learning, memory, problem-solving, cognition and language.

Computer programming has demonstrated some similarities between human and artificial thought. Both processes involve storing information, retrieving it at an appropriate time, combining it with other information and executing actions or procedures based on that information. Humans add the dimensions of emotion, selective perception, stubbornness and a host of other variables in exercising behaviors that computers do not.

The executive routine in computer programming helped to explain that memory is not simply a retrieval process based on stimulus-response pairing but is, instead, a dynamic process in which information retrieval goes through various subroutines before it is recalled. In effect, information is judged cognitively before it arrives in consciousness. The process would like similar to this:

One phenomenon that CANNOT be recreated by computers is pattern recognition. Pattern recognition occurs when the nervous system responds consistently to the same stimuli; it in essence "recognizes" the stimuli and responds. Humans can do this on a quite complex level; for example, humans can recognize the letter "R" in various hand-written and typed forms, in different fonts and sizes. Computer optical character readers cannot begin to recognize information on this level of complexity.

Cognitive criticisms of behaviorism

The major criticism of behaviorism is that it ignores the cognitive processes involved in behavior. Behaviorists believe that only observable behavior can be measured and interpreted. In a Skinner box, the fact that a pigeon presses a bar to receive a food pellet is the only observable act. Cognitive theorists believe that it is the mental connection of the bar to the food which is being displayed. This can be inferred by the pigeon's continual actions. Behaviorists would say this is a reinforcement contingency that has become stamped in and has become a set, learned behavior that can be altered by changing the reinforcement contingency.

Theories of language acquisition

Verbal information is processed unconsciously in terms of three procedural levels. First, the arrangement of patterns form a visual or auditory code (the word "b-o-o-k"). Second, this pattern forms a name ("book"). Third, it is an abstract concept or representation of something (a mental recollection of a book).

Experiments conducted on the time it takes to process this information indicated that when pairs of letters were presented to subjects, the fastest recognition time occurred when the letters were the same (e.g. C-C), second fastest was when the letters were in different forms but had the same name (e.g. C-c), and slowest when they were different letters in the same category (e.g. F-j, both consonants). This indicates different processing times for different language activities.

Noam Chompsky believed that around age 3, children come to understand the syntax (grammar rules) of language through a genetic predisposition called the language acquisition device (LAD). Chompsky believed everyone is born with the LAD and uses it to explain why children have little difficulty in syntax when learning language.

Benjamin Whorf proposed the linguistic relativity theory. In this, Whorf believes that our language is determined by (or relative to) our culture. Eskimos above the Arctic Circle have many more times the number of words to indicate snowy conditions than people in other parts of North America.

Cognitive perspectives in relation to the processes of attention, perception, memory and reasoning

The component process theory of cognitive development involves five mental processes that are required for problem solving. To be fully capable of problem solving, all five of these processes must be present:

encoding: processing stimuli in terms of acknowledging its existence, understanding its principles and labeling it successfully

memory: the ability to remember and retrieve stimuli when needed; language improves this ability

evaluation: establishing a hypothesis and weighing its relative advantages and disadvantages

hypothesis generation and deduction: understanding the established hypothesis and deducing how to carry it out or validate it in the real world

mediation: use of various tools, or mediators, to internalize thought; examining various aspects of a problem and discounting some elements while focusing on others

A typical information processing sequence model would include the following steps:

1. iconic (visual) or echoic (auditory) storage: information is visually or acoustically inputted into memory
2. image representation or encoding: elements of the sensory information are examined and essential features are focused on for recognition
3. storage in STM: information is placed in short term memory until it is combined with other information and transferred for later retrieval, is used immediately, or is discarded after a certain amount of time
4. storage in LTM: information is consolidated with existing information in long term memory and stored until needed at a later time

Memory is typically divided into three separate systems: sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory.

Sensory memory involves storing information for a very short period of time:

 

Iconic (visual) memory lasts about one half second.

Echoic (auditory) memory last about three to five seconds.

Short term memory, or working memory, briefly stores and processes selected information from the sensory registers. It has limited storage capacity.

Research has indicated specific qualities of short term memory:

STM can store 5-9 chunks of information. Chunking involves grouping information into

meaningful units for easier handling, like area codes or zip codes

information in STM is forgotten in 15-20 seconds if it is not rehearsed

phonological (or acoustical) encoding is the predominant means by which information is

stored in STM

Long term memory stores information indefinitely and has an unlimited capacity.

Research has indicated specific qualities of long term memory:

some psychologists believe the information is never truly forgotten but that it just cannot be

accessed in LTM

some psychologists believe that our memories about specific events are fused with our hopes,

expectations and unique perspectives so that they are often quite different from the actual event

There are four types of LTM:

 

procedural memory: contains learned associations between stimuli and responses, like how to tie your shoes or drive a car

semantic memory: stores general facts and information, like information you need to learn for a test

episodic memory: stores more specific information that has personal meaning, like going on your first date

declarative memory: our memory of day-to-day conversations and events

 

Other types of LTM:

 

eidetic imagery: commonly called photographic memory, this is the ability to recall specific details of information

flashbulb memory: this is a vivid recollection of a significant event from episodic memory

Hemispheric research indicates that the left hemisphere of the brain is primarily responsible for verbal information and memory. The right hemisphere is primarily responsible for visual and spatial information. Experiments with subjects who have had epilepsy and brain damage indicate that when information is presented only to the left side of the brain they can describe (verbal) what they've been shown. But when presented only to the right side of the brain, they cannot describe the object but can pick it out of a collection of objects (spatial) or give a nonverbal response like a laugh.

Coding in memory that entail motor activity like driving a car or dribbling a basketball are called enactive codes. Because this process is so complex, it has not been completely studied. Research indicates enactive coding involve different memories than verbal coding. When typists are asked to type something, they can do it with little to no errors. But when they're asked to remember where the letters are on the keyboard, they do so with great difficulty and many errors. While they can use the keyboard, they haven't processed it verbally in terms of letter location. Motor skills can routinely be accomplished while the individual is attending to something else. People can walk (motor skills) while talking (verbal skill) to someone else. Motor codes do not need conscious activation to occur.

It generally takes longer to produce associations to pictures than to words. This is because picture associations have to be transformed into verbal information. Research also indicates that visual memories are grouped in memory according to spatial and physical properties. To recall visual information requires finding the appropriate visual memory, searching for the correct category within that grouping, and then extracting the specific verbal name.

Memory retrieval can be one of two types. Effortless retrieval which occurs when information is recalled with little or no attention or effort; this usually occurs when new information is identical or close to information previously stored in memory. Effortful retrieval occurs when attention and effort are required to recall information; this usually occurs when new information is not identical to information previously stored in memory.

There are three main explanations for forgetting: interference theory, time-decay theory, and consolidation theory.

Interference theory focuses on the interference of new and old material.

Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with new information. If someone is an avid tennis player and then switches to racquetball (which requires the player to break their wrist rather than keep it straight as in tennis), their tennis experience will cause them not to break their wrist. Research indicates that when learning involves similar information, proactive interference is more likely to take effect. If the information is diverse, like learning a series of letters and then numbers, memory is affected less (called release from proactive interference). This indicates the importance of classification in retention and that different types of information are encoded in different parts of memory.

Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with previously learned information. If the individual switches back to tennis from playing racquetball, they may have a tendency to break their wrist playing tennis.

Decay theory holds that forgetting is the result of disuse. The more information is not recalled from memory, the more difficult it is to access it.

Consolidation theory holds that information cannot be recalled because it has been improperly encoded. This may be a result of linking it to other material in LTM during elaborative rehearsal or faulty encoding because the material was incomplete and therefore difficult to link to LTM material.

There are currently three major theories on the cognitive process of pattern recogntion:

template matching: patterns are recognized based on its similarity to a basic model; this theory does not explain how small variations in patterns away from the basic model still result in recognition

feature analysis: states that cognition results from a hierarchical structure of analyzers, or processes in which information is analyzed; analyzers respond to combinations of features in the incoming stimuli; more complex information must be analyzed in terms of its features

analysis by synthesis: this is latest and most promising theory to date; this theory claims that the cognitive process is constantly analyzing, hypothesis-testing, and revising theories about what it sees and hears in the real world; this is a combination of sensory analysis, memory and thinking abilities; it sees memory as paramount in the process and views information processing as an active synthesizing process.

The active synthesizing process model states that incoming sensory signals are analyzed by an active synthesizer which matches this stimuli against past experiences. This allows for accurate recognition even the in fact of ambiguities, incomplete information, inconsistencies, distortions and gaps. For example, "The choice of a new __________" (generation) is a commonly heard Pepsi slogan and the blank can be filled in quite easily because the words and phrases were matched against the past experience with the commercials and the vocabulary of the individual.

The contribution of cognitive psychology to social psychology theories regarding social representations

The contribution of cognitive psychology to clinical psychology in understanding the problem resolution approach and the modification of attributions and beliefs

Cognitive restructuring is part of behavior modification. The therapist tries to modify the thinking and reasoning processes of the client. Rational-emotive therapy is one common type of cognitive therapy. This is based on the fact that people are cognitively interpreting the world around them constantly, these interpretations can cause internal conflict or turmoil, and therapy should focus on these interpretations. For example, someone who thinks that they are competent in everything they do will suffer stress when they are incompetent in something; the therapist will show the unrealistic goal they've set for themselves and guide them to a more realistic goal.

Beck's cognitive theory focuses on logical and illogical conclusions drawn by the individual in interpreting his or her world. These characteristics used to interpret the world are called schemata. People who suffer from depression, according to Beck, would see minor everyday irritants as indicative of the hopelessness of their lives; the depressed individual holds a schemata that is based on self-deprecation. Depression has a cognitive basis if it meets two criteria: the depressed person is thinking illogically and this cognitive distortion has caused the depression rather than being a reaction to it.

There are several common errors in logic made by depressed individuals according to Beck:

arbitrary inference: an erroneous conclusion drawn from little to no evidence

selective abstraction: an erroneous conclusion drawn on the basis of only one out of many bits of evidence

overgeneralization: an erroneous conclusion drawn on the basis on a single, perhaps isolated event

magnification and minimization: exaggerating evidence or reducing the importance of behaviors

The contribution of cognitive psychology to educational psychology in the areas of models of learning

Jean Piaget is the most well-known cognitive theorist. He believed that individuals arrange the world into cognitive frameworks called schemes in order to understand what is going on around them. Assimilation occurs when information fits readily into an existing scheme. Accommodation occurs when the individual must create a new scheme to accommodate information that conflicts to existing schemes they use.

Piaget believed that individuals progress through four stages of cognitive development:

sensorimotor stage (ages 0-2): behavior is mostly reflexive and egocentric; by the end of this stage the child acquires symbolic intelligence and object permanence, the understanding that object exists independent of their perceptions

preoperational stage (ages 2-7): the first half is the preconceptual phase in which the child sees the world only in relation to themselves; the second half is the intuitive phase in which the child intuition is used in thinking and problem solving; the child has not mastered conservation,can only focus on one aspect of an object at a time, and thinks objects are in a permanent state; the child has not mastered reversibility (once they have begun to divide an object into parts mentally they cannot see it as whole again); the child begins to master language and symbolic representation

concrete operations (ages 7-11): an operation is defined by Piaget as a process in which the individual can change the object through physical or mental manipulation; logical thinking occurs at this stage; the child can understand numbers, exercise reversibility in relation to actions in the real world; at this stage the child can understand conservation, the notion that although an object's shape changes its mass, weight or volume remain the same

formal operations (ages 11 on up): the individual can think logically and abstractly; they can tackle abstract concepts; reversibility of ideas in present, not just actions in the real world; religious beliefs and idealistic thought occur at this stage.

Jerome Bruner believed that cognitive development was alloplastic, or adaptable to other people, objects or technological advancement rather than autoplastic (like Piaget), or predetermined and relatively unaffected by outside factors. Bruner's theory takes into account the integration of culture, language and evolution in the cognitive process. He believed that the use of tools caused man's brain to evolve to its larger size; technological advances caused the evolution of the thinking process. As the individual matures, they can integrate their knowledge of skills and behaviors cognitively. These then become blueprints for higher order thinking. Language is the means in which this integration occurs.

Bruner believed man, like lower animals, perceive things the same. The difference is how we represent things cognitively. Human thought includes the following aspects:

enactive mode: the first mode to develop focuses on action and movement; objects have meaning based on how the action of that object reinforces the individual

iconic mode: knowledge is based on sensory information; pictures can stand for actual events, for example

symbolic mode: language is used to represent and transform information; this is mostly adult thinking

Perceptual-motor tasks require cognition, fixation and automation. The individual needs to be familiar with the task, understand what must be accomplished, what materials are needed and what sort of actions are necessary to complete the task. Fixation occurs when the person is consciously completing a behavior; individuals may "talk to themselves" during this phase to focus on the task that must be accomplished. Automation occurs when the individual focuses on refining the behaviors or skills they're learned.