Personality is an individual's unique thoughts, feelings and behavior that persist over time and different situations. Personality theorists attempt to describe how individuals remain consistent in their thoughts, feelings and behaviors, as well as to explain how people differ in their personalities.

There are six main schools of thought regarding personality:

Psychodynamic: focuses on unconscious motives and structures to explain personality

Humanistic: focuses on the fundamental goodness of people and their attempts to strive for

higher levels of functioning

Constitution or type: proposes a relationship between body type and personality characteristics

Trait: examines stable characteristics of the person that help explain behavior

Social-Cognitive: focuses on environmental contingencies and accompanying mental

processes to explain personality

Behavioral: focuses on the fundamentals of learning to explain behavior

The most well-known psychodynamic theorist if Sigmund Freud. Freud focused on the power of inner forces as motivators to shape personality. He believed that these unconscious motivations could be examined through the use of psychoanalysis, which includes three main techniques:

free association: allowing the patient to say whatever comes to mind

dream analysis: attempts to examine the latent (hidden) content of a dream through

examining its manifest (remembered) dream elements

hypnosis: a state of suggestibility induced by the therapist (learned through

his studies with Jean Martin Charcot)

Through his association with his mentor, Josef Breuer, Freud's psychodynamic theory is based on a few key findings of Breuer's that Freud elaborate on:

1) Underlying symptoms can be relieved through the expression of the "strangulated affect,"

or bring these unconscious motives to the surface. The process of purging these

emotions is called catharsis.

2) The symptoms someone displays have an emotional logic and the key to psychoanalysis

is to unlock the mysteries of these symptoms.

3) A lot of abnormal behaviors are a result of emotionally abrasive experiences in our

childhood. They unconsciously grow into abnormal behaviors as the person gets older.

This is based on psychic determinism, or the assumption that our early life determines our behavior and unconscious reactions.

Freud believed we all had certain drives and instincts which guide our behavior. These include...

eros: the life instinct which seeks to preserve the species; tied to the libido

libido: our sexual energy

thanatos: our desire to return to the womb; manifested in aggressive and destructive behavior

Freud believed that everyone progressed through five stages of psychosexual development. These stages are:

oral stage (0-1 years): achieves libidinal satisfaction from oral activities such as

eating and sucking

anal stage (1-3 years): autonomy is developed through bladder and bowel control

phallic stage (3-6 years): the child comes to develop a sexual attachment to the opposite sexed

parent and to see the same sexed parent as a rival for those affections

Oedipus Complex: boys want to possess the mother and see their father as a sexual rival

Electra Complex: girls want to possess the father and see their mother as a sexual rival

latency period (6-puberty): a period of sexual rest for both sexes where sex-role

identities develop

genital stage (puberty on): a reawakening of sexual urges and a desire for heterosexual

relationships

Freud believed that the mind or our personality was made up of three constructs:

the id: the child within us; the primitive, unconscious part of our mind that seeks

expression of wishes and emotions (called the pleasure principle)

the ego: uses the reality principle to satisfy the id and superego safely and effectively

in the real world; the mediator that develops with experience and is the rational

part of our mind

the superego: society's values and morals; our conscience; the parent within us which

is guided by the idealistic principle

Individuals constantly strive to present their best self and reduce anxiety. Freud called this preserving ego integrity. To do this, individuals employ a variety of defense mechanisms. Some of the more common ones are:

repression: involuntary memory loss about something anxiety-producing

suppression: voluntarily not thinking about something anxiety-producing

denial: not facing up to the reality of a situation

rationalization: making up excuses for our actions

displacement: rechanneling aggression in a negative way; taking our frustrations out

on a substitute person or object

sublimation (also called compensation): rechanneling aggression in a neutral or positive way

projection: putting onto others our own tendencies, motives or traits

reaction formation: behaving outwardly that opposite of how we inwardly feel

fantasy: escaping reality through daydreaming or using the imagination

procrastination: putting off something anxiety-producing until a later time

fixation: becoming stuck at a specific stage of psychosexual development because it is

safer for ego integrity

regression: returning to an earlier stage of psychosexual development

Neo-Freudians refined and developed Freud's theories. They did not agree that our libido guided the majority of our actions but found other sources for our motives.

Carl Jung was Freud's handpicked successor in the field of psychodynamic theory. He differed from Freud on several fundamental issues:

Jung also believed that our personality or mind was made up of three constructs. He differed, however, from Freud's concepts of the id, ego and superego. Jung's three components were:

conscious ego: our consciousness awareness of ourselves and how we present our self

to the outside world; Freudian defense mechanisms are employed to preserve ego integrity

personal unconscious: motives and behaviors that are unique to the individual hidden

away in the unconscious

collective unconscious: racial memory; our understanding of mankind's past;

our intuitive tendencies toward universal, reoccurring symbols called archetypes

Some of the more notable archetypal characters found in literature are:

hero: saves the day; defeats evil; protects the weak

mother: surrounds, encompasses and protects the individual; can be both a person or an institution

shadow: the dark side of our nature; our hidden, bad tendencies we do not like to acknowledge

trickster/magician: plays sly pranks and malicious tricks; usually represented as half man,

half animal

child-god: an individual who has powers or knowledge beyond their years

anima: the projection of femininity from a man's collective unconscious; seeing in others

our own opposite sexed characteristics

animus: the projection of masculinity from a woman's collective unconscious; seeing in

others our own opposite sexed characteristics

persona: the Greek word for "mask;" the different faces we put on in different environments

Jung believed in mandala symbolism, our striving for completeness or wholeness. "Mandala" is the Sanskrit word for "circle" or desire for wholeness is represented in art through complete symbols such as the circle.

Jung also believed that what most people felt were coincidence were actually acts of synchronicity. This is the term he used to define an individual's unconscious awareness of a greater understanding in the world, sort of a tapping into the consciousness of the universe.

Jung also examined personality types and temperaments. He believed that personality traits lay along a continuum and individuals tended to fall somewhere along this continuum. The opposite ends of this continuum he called polar opposites. His four basic personality continuums involve the following:

Alfred Adler believed that individuals possess innate positive motives that are the primary determinant of our personality. Our major goal was the achievement of perfection. We would strive to overcome personal and social obstacles through compensation. Adler later modified his theories and believed that individuals attempted to overcome feelings of inferiority, what he termed the inferiority complex. Later, he revised his theories again and focused on how the individual strives for personal and social perfection. To help us achieve this, we develop fictional finalisms which are goals we set to guide our behaviors.

Karen Horney thought that basic anxiety was a greater motivating force than our libido. This may develop in children whose parents are overly oppressive, indifferent or inconsistent in their child-rearing. In coping with these, individuals develop one of three neurotic trends, irrational approaches to dealing with this anxiety. Horney believed that, in interacting with others, we tend to develop into the following types:

compliant type: moving toward others in attempts to be submissive

aggressive type: moving against others in attempts to gain power

detached type: moving away from others to avoid being hurt

Horney focused on cultural determinants of behavior and, as such, believed that the individual could change throughout the life cycle.

Erik Erikson believed that individuals went through eight crises throughout their lives in which a positive or negative resolution to the crisis occurred. These are called the "Eight Ages of Man," and make up Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development. The stages are:

trust versus mistrust (0 - 1): the infant develops a sense of trust in the world if his

or her needs are met

autonomy versus doubt (1 - 3): the toddler develops a sense of independence through

bladder and bowel control (coincides with Freud's anal stage; Anna Freud was Erikson's therapist during his psychological training)

initiative versus guilt (3 - 5 1/2): the child learns to initiate actions, especially during

play, indicating a move to cognitive, not just physical independence

industry versus inferiority (5 1/2 - 12): the child competes against his or her peers in

producing acceptable work in school

identity versus role-confusion (adolescence): the teenager develops a sense of identity,

strives for more self-understanding and establishes goals for the future

intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood): a feeling of belonging either with a close

group of friends or through marriage

generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood): generativity is Erikson's term for a

concern for future generations; in this stage adults assist their growing children or the community to make the world a better place for them in the future

integrity versus despair (later adulthood): the individual looks back over their life and

assesses whether is was a positive or negative existence

The focus of humanistic theory is on the here and now, attempting to help the individual through the process of unconditional positive regard (unconditional support) in achieving self-actualization, or a realization of the individual's full potential and comforting sense of place in the world. The emphasis is on the whole person, not an examination into only one dysfunctional part of personality.

William James developed the concept of self, anything that a person can lay claim to be part of his or her person that distinguishes them from others. James defined four parts to the self:

material self: refers to material possessions

social self: how we are perceived by others (akin to Jung's persona)

spiritual self: our reasoning, emotions and psychological faculties

pure ego: the person's internal stream of consciousness

Carl Rogers developed his theories through clinical settings. Adler's concept of striving toward perfection and James' concept of self where building blocks fro Roger's theories. He believed that all organisms had a biological push toward fulfillment called an actualizing tendency. Individuals attempted to fulfill their own self-concepts or images they have formed of themselves through a self-actualizing tendency. When an individual's real self matches their potential or ideal self, Rogers believes the individual has become a fully functioning person.

Abraham Maslow also believed in our self-actualizing tendency by satisfying certain needs. He arranged these in a hierarchical structure with the lower level needs representing our survival needs and the upper level needs our growth or meta-needs. He represented these needs in a pyramid, using the concept that the lower needs had to be met to form the foundation on which to build the higher level needs. These needs are:

Constitution theory focuses on the connection between a person's body type and their personality.

Hippocrates believed that our personalities were associated with the four basic fluids in our body. These humors of the body are:

black bile: melancholy or sad

blood: sanguine or cheerful

phlegm: phlegmatic or apathetic

yellow bile: choleric or excitable

William Sheldon divides the human physique into three body types, or somatotyptes. Most people have some characteristics of all three of these, with one somatotype dominant. The somatotypes are:

endomorphs: round bodies with large abdomens

mesomorphs: upright bodies with strong bones and muscles

ectomorphs: thin, fragile bodies

Sheldon also divided our personality or temperaments into three types:

viscerotonia: fond of food, people and comfort; very sociable

somatotonia: love of activity and physical adventure

cerebrotonia: very private, restrained and self-conscious

The body and temperament types can be combined in a variety of configurations with certain elements being emphasized over others.

Trait theory concerns itself more with describing rather than explaining personality. Traits cannot be observed in a person but can be inferred from their behaviors. Trait theory disagrees with the limited number of types advocated by the constitution theorists. Trait theorists believe there are multiple dimensions and each individual possesses these traits to greater or lesser degrees. Traits can be classified in three ways:

cardinal traits: a general trait that influences everything an individual does; this is very rare

central traits: traits that in individual typically exemplifies in their normal behavior

secondary traits: traits which appear only in specific situations

Gordon Allport believed that these traits exist in our nervous system and influence our behavior in various situations. He believed that each individual had their own unique constellation of traits, although the single traits could be attributed to many people. Along with H.S. Odbert, Allport identified 17,953 words from the dictionary that described personality. Only about 4500 of these words made up stable or enduring traits. When synonyms were removed, the list was reduced to about 200 basic traits.

Raymond Cattell found that when these 200 traits were attributed to people, certain traits tended to cluster around each other. For example, if someone were considered amiable, they may also be considered flexible and open to experiences. Based on his research, called factor analysis, he found that there were between 16 and 25 basic personality traits.

Tupes and Christal has subsequently demonstrated that there are five basic dimensions of personality traits:

extroversion (or surgency): talkative, assertive, spontaneous, energetic, outspoken

agreeableness (or pleasantness): warm, kind, flexible, forgiving, good-hearted

conscientiousness (or dependability): organized, responsible, hard-working, practical, reliable

emotional stability: relaxed, objective, even-tempered, secure, peaceful

culture (or intelligent or sophisticated): perceptive, analytical, artistic, creative, knowledgeable

The socio-cognitive theory focuses on the influence on the environment on the individual and how his or her behavior is changed correspondingly. The process by which the individual, the situation and the environment all influence one another is called reciprocal determinism.

Walter Mischel proposed that there is only an apparent consistency of behavior when we observe others because we are seeing them in only a limited number of social situations. He believes that we tend to look for behaviors to validate our assumptions about the consistency of someone's behavior and ignore evidence to the contrary. He later revised his theory indicating there are actually some aspect that are relatively consistent, for example intelligence and academic achievement.

Albert Bandura is probably the most well-known of the social learning theorists. He believed that we developed behaviors based on observational learning. Bandura believed that an individual then evaluates their behavior in a situation according to internal expectancies. The environmental feedback that ensues from this behavior can alter the internal expectancies for future behavior.

Julian Rotter proposed that these expectancies can be influenced by one's locus of control, or an expectancy that reinforcement is under either internal or external control. People who believe they are masters of their own fate have an internal locus of control; those who believe their behavior is due to destiny have an external locus of control.

B.F. Skinner believed that a person's behaviors were a result of past conditioning rather than some innate personality characteristic. They parameters of their behaviors are based on what has worked for them in the past which, in essence, are conditioned responses to environmental stimuli. Skinner, as well as John Watson, are keen to point out the science can only record observable fact and, consequently, only an organism's behaviors can be used. Attributing behaviors to motives or personality traits is too speculative. Skinner agrees that early childhood is important in the formation of behaviors because it can establish reinforcement contingencies, patterns of reinforcement the individual has received throughout life. This determines their behaviors, although new behaviors can change due to changes in reinforcement contingencies.

Personal interview—conversation with the purpose of obtaining information from the person being interviewed; used in clinical settings; can be unstructured or structured; structured interviews can draw out information on sensitive topics

Direct observation—observing a person’s actions firsthand in everyday situations over a long period of time; used by behaviorists and social learning theorists; works best with young children because they are less self-conscious; can be subject to observer misinterpretation; can be expensive and time-consuming

Objective tests—personality tests that are administered and scored in a standard way; used by trait theorists; 16PF and MMPI are examples; self-report bias is possible as is familiarity with the test format

Projective tests—personality tests consisting of ambiguous or unstructured material; used by psychodynamic theorists; the TAT and Rorschach test are examples; a more relaxed type of testing; unconscious thoughts can be uncovered; the true purpose of the test can be disguised; analysis relies on the skill of the examiner